World Religions

Hinduism developed over a long period of time; although the religion is about 3,000 years old, some elements are much older. Hinduism is not based on the teachings or words of any one person. Although there have been many teachers within Hinduism, it has no single fundamental teacher and no prophets. Hinduism does not have one holy book that lays out tenets of the religion. It combines ideas from different cultures and periods.

In what ways does this make Hinduism different from other major world religions, such as Christianity, Islam, Judaism, and Taoism?

Here are some facts about Hinduism.

• Has about 800 million followers worldwide
• Has no founder or prophets
• Not a single, unified religion
• About 80% of the population of India considers themselves Hindus
• Over 3,000 years old
• Includes the concept of a cycle of birth, death, and rebirth
• Has many deities, including Krishna, Shiva, and Rama

Use these facts to write a paragraph about this ancient religion.

About 3,000 years ago, Hinduism began near the Indus River of northwestern India. It spread throughout India and across East Asia. Although many of the countries in this region later adopted Buddhism or Islam as their primary religion, Hindu influence is still seen in the culture and literature of much of Southeast Asia. Today Nepal is the only official Hindu state in the world. (Although many Indians are Hindu, India has no official state religion.)

Find Nepal on a map. Why do you think this country has stayed primarily Hindu while other countries converted to other religions?

Hinduism is the Western name for traditional Indian religion. The Indian name is Sanatana Dharma, or “Universal Religion.” The word Hindu is probably a Persian mispronunciation of “Sindhu,” another name for the Indus River. This name was first used for traditional Indian religion in the early 1800s. Since then, it has become the accepted English term.

Think about other instances where ideas from one culture are given a different name by another culture. How would you react if an idea that is important to you were referred to by a different name? Do you think it is appropriate to use our own words for ideas from other cultures, or should we use the original culture’s terms?

The concept of dharma is important in Hinduism. Dharma has several different meanings. Following our dharma involves conducting ourselves righteously and according to our role in life. When we are young, our role in life is to be a good son or daughter. As we grow older, we should be good students, good friends, and good citizens. When we have decisions to make, we should do what is right, even if it goes against our best interests.

On an individual level, many people, consciously or unconsciously – do act in this way. But on a global level, people often put their own interests first. Think of a situation (either from history or from current events) where a person or a country acted based on self-interest rather than on what is right. Describe the situation. Then say what the person or the country should have done. How would that have affected history or current events?

In the Hindu view of life, the soul is not permanently attached to one body. A soul first enters the world in the body of a simple life form – not a human. When that first body dies, the soul moves on to a more complex life form and is reborn there. This has been compared to the way people outgrow clothes and need new ones. The process of rebirth is called samsara, The Bhagavad Gita, part of a Hindu epic, says:

Worn-out garments are shed by the body; worn-out bodies are shed by the dweller.

When the soul has reached a certain level of development it enters a human body. It continues to pass from body to body, but the choices the soul makes in each life affect the next life. Unkind acts in one lifetime may mean hardships in the next lifetime. In this way, the soul creates its own future. If bad things happen to us, we have no one to blame but ourselves; these bad things are caused by our own negative acts in past lives.

If people are responsible for their own futures, what would be the best way to act in this lifetime?

Shankaracharya was a Hindu teacher who founded four great monasteries in India. He once explained that humans are like jars filled with air. Our souls are the air. This air is the same as the air outside the jar. When the jar breaks at death, the inside air joins the outside air.

What is your reaction to this description?

In the Hindu view of the world, souls go through an endless process of death and rebirth. Our actions in this life affect the next life. This is called the law of Karma.

In a way, we can look at karma as cause and effect. Every individual action has an effect, good, neutral, or bad. If we live a life of good deeds, good things will eventually happen to us – if not in this life, then in the next one. If we are selfish and narrow-minded, then bad things will happen to us.

In this way of thinking, there are no such things as accidents or luck – either good luck or bad luck. Everything that happens is the result of some action we took either in this life or one in the past.

Think about something unexpected that happened to you recently, either good or bad. Describe the incident. Did you think it was an accident or “just luck”? Would your attitude towards the even change if you thought your own past actions bad caused it? Explain.

According to the Hindu law of karma, a person’s future is determined by his or her past actions. Some people interpret this as meaning that humans are controlled by fate. We don’t really have control of what happens to us in this life, as the outcome has already been set.

Other people interpret the law of karma as meaning that humans have complete control. If we focus on what we do in the present, we can ensure good things in our future. We also have control of the way we react to things in the present. A negative event may have been caused by a negative act that we committed in the past. If we react to it in a negative way – with anger, for example, or with a selfish focus – this reaction may cause yet another negative event in the future. But if we respond in a positive way, not getting angry but accepting the event as part of life, the future effect may be positive.

Can you identify with either of these ideas of life – controlled by fate or controlled by our own actions? Choose one of these ideas. Write about how this idea of life might affect the way you act.

We often think of Hinduism as having many goods. However, Hindu beliefs also include the concept of Brahman, the universal spirit. Brahman permeates everything, and everything is part of Brahman. Our souls are part of Brahman and seek to be reunited with him. Brahman is infinite and eternal – and impossible to describe.

Since people think in concrete terms, most find it hard to imagine divinity on this scale, with no form or face. For this reason, some Hindus believe that Brahman is manifested in many different forms, some of which are gods. Since Brahman is in everything, including us, then Brahman is also in the different gods of Hinduism. In the Bhagavad Gita, part of a great Hindu epic, the god Krishna says, “Whatever god a man worships, it is I who answer the prayer.” Thus the thousands of minor gods of Hinduism can be seen as the different faces of the universal spirit Brahman.

Which would you find easier to think about: Brahman as a formless universal spirit that is part of everything, or as a pantheon of different gods?

Sri Ramakrishna was a nineteenth-century Hindu sage. In his search for god, Ramakrishna faithfully followed the spiritual disciplines of several different religions. The following is an excerpt from one of Sri Ramakrishna’s teachings on faith.

God has made different religions to suit different aspirations, times, and countries. All doctrines are only so many paths; but a path is by no means God Himself. Indeed, one can reach God if one follows any of the paths with whole-hearted devotion. One may eat a cake with icing either straight or sidewise. It will taste sweet either way…. As one can ascend to the top of a house by means of a ladder or a bamboo or a staircase or a rope, so diverse are the ways and means to approach God, and every religion in the world shows one of these ways.

In your own words, explain what Sri Ramakrishna was saying here.

Hinduism has many gods. Three of them are Brahma, Shiva, and Vishnu. Brahma is known as the Creator. The universe and all creatures in it came from him. Vishnu is known as the Preserver. Associated with truth and righteousness, he maintains order. Shiva is the Destroyer. Shiva’s destruction leads to good, as he removes impurity.

Although these three gods are sometimes called the Hindu Trinity, they are not of equal importance. Brahma’s job – creation – is finished. The jobs of the other two gods remain.

Write about this view of the world in which the principles of creation, preservation, and destruction are connected. Which principle do you think is the most important one?

Statues and paintings of the Hindu gods are found in homes and temples throughout India. The different images of a particular god often have things in common. For example, Ganesha is usually shown with an elephant’s head, and Shiva is often shown with three eyes. These images use symbolism to express the divine nature of the gods. Thus Ganesha’s elephant head stands for wisdom. Shiva’s left and right eyes indicate his activity in the physical world; the third eye symbolizes spiritual knowledge and power. For viewers familiar with the symbolism, each image conveys a great deal of information.

Symbols are used in many ways in different cultures. Think about how symbols are used in your daily life. Describe these symbols and what they stand for.

Shiva is one of the primary figures in Hinduism. He is often shown as Shiva Nataraj, or “Shiva, King of Dancers.” Everything in this image has a meaning. Shiva is shown with four arms, one for each of the cardinal directions. He dances with his left foot raised. His right food rests on a figure that represents illusion and ignorance. In his upper right hand he holds a drum that stands for the male-female principle. His lower right hand makes a gesture that means, “Be without fear.” Snakes, which stand for the ego, are seen uncoiling from his arms, legs, and hair. The skull on his head stands for his conquest over death. He is placed within an arch of flames; these stand for the endless cycle of birth and death.

Shiva’s right food is on illusion and ignorance. What is the symbolism of this pose?

According to Hindu belief, whenever the order of the world is threatened, Vishnu the Preserver appears on Earth. He is often considered to have ten forms, or avatars, on Earth.

First Vishnu appeared as a fish to rescue the world from a flood. Next, as a tortoise, he supported a mountain on his back. Third, as a boar, he killed a demon who had stolen the Vedas, or holy scriptures.

In his fourth avatar, as half man, half lion, he killed a demon king who could not be harmed by man or beast. Next, as a dwarf, he tricked a demon king who had seized the universe.

As a warrior Parashurama he destroyed a wicked king. As Rama, the perfect king, he killed the demon king Ravana. His eighth avatar was Krishna, the central character in the epic Mahabharata. Krishna’s advice to another character became the beloved text Bhagavad Gita. Next Vishnu appeared as Buddha in order to remove suffering from the world.

The tenth avatar of Vishnu, Kalki the Destroyer, has not yet appeared in the world. Kalki will wipe out the forces of evil.

Some people see a progression in the avatars of Vishnu. Look at these ten avatars. Describe any progression you see.

According to Hinduism, the things we want change as we go through life. At first, we want pleasure and worldly success. There is nothing wrong with wanting these things, as long as we act morally in seeking them. For example, we should not lie or cheat in order to gain success. We must achieve it honestly.

Some people may spend years seeking pleasure or striving for worldly success. We may even think that these things make us happy. Eventually, though, we find ourselves wanting more, because each of these goals is too narrow to satisfy our total nature.

Choose one of these goals to examine. Do you think it is too narrow to satisfy all aspects of human nature?

One of the goals of Hinduism is to help people achieve their full spiritual potential. Since all people are different, Hinduism does not teach just one way to reach this goal. Instead it identifies four basic spiritual personality types and a path for each. These paths are known as yoga, which comes from the same root as the word yoke. It means, “to place under training.”

The first type includes people who seek spirituality through reflection. Their yoga is jnana, or knowledge.

The second type includes people who seek to understand things emotionally. Their yoga is bhakti, devotion and love.

The third type includes people who take an active approach to their goals. Their yoga is karma, or work.

The fourth spiritual type includes people who like a methodical approach to understanding spirituality. Their path is raja yoga, or royal yoga. This is the yoga that uses physical postures to achieve spiritual illumination.

Think about yourself and your approach to things. Which of these approaches to spirituality would be best for you: jnana yoga, bhakti yoga, karma yoga, or raja yoga?

Hinduism offers many paths to spirituality. One approach is called raja yoga. According to raja yoga, each of us has different layers of “self.” The first layer is the physical self – our bodies. The second layer is the conscious part of our minds – the things we are aware of and try to think about. The third layer is the subconscious. This layer is shaped by our experiences, but we are usually not aware of how it affects us. The fourth layer is even deeper than the subconscious. It is the layer of Being.

The aim of raja yoga is to reach the layer of Being. The first step in reaching it calls for being completely still. Sit for one minute without moving and without thinking. At the end of one minute, write your reactions to the first step of raja yoga.

In Hinduism, those who wish to develop spiritually will listen to teachings. They may find a mentor called a guru. The word guru comes from two Sanskrit words, gu and ru. Gu means “darkness” or “ignorance.” Ru means “remover” or “dispeller.”

Based on the original meanings of he words gu and ru, write your own definition of the word guru.

Patanjali, an Indian sage who contributed to the development of Hinduism, lived around 200 B.C.E. Recognizing the need for a solid ethical foundation, Patanjali compiled an ethical code.

The code consists of five things people should do – the niyamas

Code also consists of five ways in which people should exercise restraint – the yamas.

Niyamas
Be pure in body, mind, and speech
Seek contentment
Cultivate devotion
Educate yourself
Be steadfast in hardship

Yamas
Practice nonviolence
Discipline sexual desire
Do not steal
Do not lie
Do not be greedy

Patanjali compiled these precepts more than 2,000 years ago. Do you think they are relevant today?

The Rig-Veda (“Praising Knowledge”), composed around 1500 B.C.E., is the oldest of the Hindu scriptures. It is also the oldest book in any Indo-European language. It marks an early stage in the development of Hinduism.

A central story in the Rig-Veda tells of the god Indra and the dragon Vritra. Vritra had stolen all the water of the world for himself. Indra fights the dragon in order to take back the life-giving waters. After a monumental struggle, Indra defeats the dragon, and the waters are freed, bringing life to the land.

Explanations of this story often show Indra as a symbol for wind, Vritra as standing for clouds, and the waters as meaning the monsoon rains. Given what you know about India, why would the monsoon rains be a matter of life or death? Why might early Indians have seen the monsoon-bringing winds as a source of life?

The Ramayana is one of India’s national epics. It tells the story of Rama and his wife, Sita.

Rama was the eldest son of the king of Ayodha. One of the king’s wives wanted her son, Bharata, to be king. The king owed her two favors. She asked him to make Bharata his heir and to banish Rama for 14 years.

Rama agreed to go, saying, “I gladly obey my father’s command.” Rama’s wife, Sita, insisted she join her husband in exile. She said, “Is it not the wife’s duty to be at her husband’s side?”

Bharata tried to persuade Rama to return. Rama insisted on doing his duty, even after his father died. Bharata said he would rule in Rama’s name; when the 14 years were up, Rama should become king.

During their exile, Sita was kidnapped, and then rescued by Rama. After that, Rama and Sita returned to Ayodha, and Rama became king.

Rama, Sita, and Bharata are often held up as models of Hindu behavior. What did they do in this story that make them good role models? What does this tell you about Hindu ideals and behavior?

The Bhagavad Gita, or “Song of God,” is one of the most influential Hindu religious texts. It is part of the epic poem Mahabharata, which tells of a war between two sets of relatives. The Bhagavad Gita opens with Arjuna, the leader of one side, despairing at the thought of killing his kinsmen. His charioteer, Krishna – who later reveals himself as a god – urges him to do his duty as a noble by leading his men into battle. Krishna reassures Arjuna that our souls are immortal, so he cannot truly kill anyone. He then goes on to tell Arjuna of three ways that the soul can be freed from the cycle of death and rebirth. The soul can be freed through karma yoga, doing one’s duty without self-interest in the consequences of one’s actions; through jnana yoga, or withdrawal and concentration that lead to knowledge; and through bhakti yoga, or devotion to God.

Mohandas Gandhi led India’s independence movement in the early twentieth century. He credited the Bhagavad Gita with helping him to cope with life’s tragedies. Based on what you know of Mohandas Gandhi, write about the influence of the Bhagavad gita on his life and work.

This is a quote from the Bhagavad Gita, one of the most influential Hindu religious texts.

Know that to be imperishable whereby all this is pervaded. No one can destroy that immutable being…. This is never born nor ever dies, nor having been will ever not be any more; unborn, eternal, everlasting, ancient, this is not slain when the body is slain…. As a man casts off worn-out garments and takes others that are new, even so the embodied one casts off worn-out bodies and passes on to others new. This no weapons wound, this no fire burns, this no waters wet, this no wind doth dry. Beyond all cutting, burning, wetting and drying is this – eternal, all-pervading, stable, immovable, everlasting. Perceivable neither by the senses nor by the mind, this is called unchangeable; therefore knowing this as such thou shouldst not grieve.

Use your knowledge of Hinduism to explain what the text is saying.

The Upanishads are part of the Hindu scriptures. They include many metaphors and analogies. In one, a rider sits in a chariot, driven by a charioteer. The chariot represents the human body. The road the chariot travels on represents things that we perceive with our senses. The horses that pull the chariot represent the senses. The reins represent the mind, which controls the senses. The chariot driver represents the human mind or intuition. The owner of the chariot has full authority over the chariot, but does not need to do anything to direct it.

In this analogy, what do you think is represented by the owner of the chariot?

Many religions use teaching stories. This story is sometimes used to teach about Hinduism.

A yogi was sitting by a river when he saw a scorpion fall into the water. The yogi scooped the scorpion up in his hand. The scorpion promptly stung him.

A minute later, the scorpion fell into the river again. Again, the yogi rescued it. And again, the scorpion stung the yogi.

For a third time, the scorpion fell into the river. And for a third time the yogi moved to rescue it. But another man had watched the whole thing, and stopped him. “Why do you keep rescuing the scorpion?” he asked. “The ungrateful creature keeps stinging you. Why don’t you just let it drown?”

The yogi answered, “It is the nature of a scorpion to sting. It is the nature of a yogi to show compassion.” And he scooped the scorpion out of the water again.

What idea do you think the story is trying to present?

Many religions use stories in order to convey a particular moral belief. The following story is sometimes used to teach about Hinduism.

A wandering sage arrived in a village. As he entered, he saw a huge, menacing snake. The villagers told the sage that the snake terrorized them and made their life difficult. The sage spoke to the snake and taught him about nonviolence, or ahimsa. The snake heard the sage’s words and took them to heart.

The next year, the sage again came to the village. The once-magnificent snake was now thin and bruised. The sage said, “My friend, what has happened to you?” The snake replied, “Your words showed me the error of my ways, so I not longer acted with violence toward the village. Now they mock me. The children throw stones at me when I try to get food.”

The sage looked at the snake, shaking his head. “My foolish friend,” he said, “I told you not to bite the people. I never told you not to hiss.”

Explain what you think is the message of the story.

Indian society has traditionally been organized into groups called castes. People are born into the caste of their family. The caste system includes a strict hierarchy and rules for social interaction. Each caste also had certain rights and responsibilities.

Advocates of the caste system say that is it not discriminatory but makes life easier for members of all castes. According to the, them, the caste system just acknowledges that people are different. Some are natural administrators; some are better at working with their hands. Under the caste system, those who are good at routine work do not compete for jobs with strategic thinkers; they compete with their equals.

Opponents of the system say that this theory is fine, but in actuality, skills like leadership or manual dexterity are not hereditary traits. A person born in a low caste might be a gifted leader but would not be allowed to develop those gifts.

Based on your knowledge of people, do you think a system like the caste system would tend to level the playing field for all? Would it tend to give certain people more privileges than others?

We speak of Hinduism, as one religion, which suggests that Hinduism is the same everywhere. This is not the case. India is a land of great variety. Even today, there are sixteen official languages in India and about 1,600 dialects. Geographically, rivers and mountains break the country into a number of distinct regions. The religion we call Hinduism developed over thousands of years, among hundreds of different groups of people. The religious traditions of all these different groups are included in Hinduism. Even today, Hinduism is changing. It is not one firm, fixed belief system, but a fluid system that includes many different beliefs.

How does an inclusive, ever-changing belief system compare to other major world belief systems? Choose another major world religion and compare it to Hinduism.